Coffeehouse and Starbucks

1. Original Strategic Vision for Starbucks Howard Schultz’s original strategic vision was to transform Starbucks into a national company with an emphasis on placing great value on its employees. He believed that the key to success was for Starbucks to capitalize on its people; he wanted a somewhat decentralized organizational structure which emphasized the importance of including employees in the decision-making process. Schultz wanted to place an image of Starbucks as an employer that cared for the general well-being of its employees and one that employees could be take pride in being a part of.A key strategic objective espoused by Schultz in his original strategic vision was to transform Starbucks into â€Å"the most respected brand name in coffee and for the company to be admired for its corporate responsibility. † Also worth noting is the fact that after visiting Milan, Italy Schultz also made it part of his strategic vision to transform Starbucks as a remake of the Italian coffee bar culture. He wanted customers to perceive a visit to a Starbucks coffee shop as a social gathering where customers could grab a fresh-brewed beverage, meet their friends and visit.He believed that creating this emphasis on customer â€Å"experience† could distinguish Starbucks from its competitors. Schultz’s 2010 strategic vision for Starbucks is an extension of his original vision from the 1980s which has been expanded to include more innovative and cost cutting practices. It can also be argued that some of his new strategic objectives are more prudent instead of being fully aggressive. For example, while Schultz still believed that the company should continue to pursue international expansion, he makes it evident that this should be pursued at a slower, more methodical pace.In addition, with regards to the volume of stores in the US, he acknowledges the fact that expansion efforts were not properly coordinated with regards to the close proximities of many Starbucks shops. Therefore he closed 900 underperforming shops, three quarters of which were located three miles away from a nearby shop. The 2010 strategic vision also continued to emphasize the customer experience. He believed that employees have lost their â€Å"soul of the past† in their passion to educate customers about their products and provide customers with a quality experience .As a result in 2008, Schultz ordered 7,100 US stores to be temporarily shut down for three business hours to provide special training for store employees. The purpose of this was to give their baristas hands-on training to aid in improving the quality of the beverages they served. It was also an effort to renew and reignite Starbucks’ culture of a customer-centric focus to help employees understand the importance of a satisfying customer experience. Lastly, much innovation and cost-cutting practices were incorporated into the 2010 strategic vision.For example as part of a seri ous cost-cutting strategy, the company undertook a 1000-person cut in staffing to cut down on administrative costs from the company’s organizational support infrastructure. With regards to innovation, the company also implemented ideas such as internet-based software for scheduling work hours for store employees and new resources such as laptops for store employees. Innovation was also implemented in the products the company offers.An example of this is the launch of VIA instant coffees and menu items designed to offer healthy breakfast choices for people with busy lifestyles such as fruit cups and healthier bakery selections. 2. Has Starbuck’s strategy evolved as the strategic vision has evolved? 3 . The Broad Differentiation strategy most closely approximates the competitive approach used by Starbucks. This is supported by the fact that the company’s target segment is not limited to a specific niche market.As reinforced by the company’s resurging commit ment to expand to global markets, it is committed to serving the needs of a broad market with widely diverse preferences. Supporting Starbuck’s use of a Broad Differentiation strategy is the fact that Starbucks tries to distinguish itself from competitors by offering a service devoted to going the extra mile to deliver a satisfying customer experience. This is congruent with the company’s theme of â€Å"just say yes† to customer requests.Another key aspect of the Broad Differentiation strategy that Starbucks practices is the offer of a wide selection of products which emphasize differentiating attributes. An example of this would be Starbuck’s introduction of VIA Ready Brew Coffee. These were packets of coffee that could be prepared instantly by simply adding them to a cup of water. VIA coffee had the superior attribute of easy preparation while replicating the same rich full-bodied taste of fresh-brewed coffee delivered by Starbucks from its coffeehouses .Another unique product introduced by Starbucks with a differentiating feature is the introduction of Vivanno â€Å"better-for-you† smoothies. These smoothies offered those health-conscious customers with little to think about with only 250 calories, one serving of fruit, 16 grams of proten and 5 grams of fiber. 4 The key policies, practices, principles and procedures that underlie how Howard Schultz and Starbucks management have implemented and executed the company’s strategy are as follows: Emphasis on providing employees with a caring, desirable work environment in which they can contribute to the success and development of the company.It is clear that Shultz believes in taking care of his employees to win their commitment to enhancing the well-being of the company. As evidence, Schultz instilled a comprehensive benefits package which unlike the norm for other businesses, were offered not only to full-time employees but part-time employees as well. In order to empha size the connection between employee contributions and the company’s market value, Schultz also implemented Bean Stock- Starbuck’s stock option plan.The purpose of this was to allow each employee to become a partner and share in the success of the company to promote a positive long-term effect on the company’s operations. Applying ethical and high standards of excellence to the purchasing, roasting and fresh delivery of coffee. Evidence for Starbuck’s commitment to ethical sourcing of its coffee can be supported by its partnership with Conservation International Center to develop Coffee and Farmer Equity (C. A. F. E. ) Practices. Such practices were designed to help farmers grow coffee in ways that prevented harm to the planet.These practices were designed to cover safe and humane working conditions (ensuring congruence with minimum wage requirements as well as child labor provisions), and making sure that the prices Starbucks paid were sufficient to allo w farmers to cover their production costs and provide for their families. In addition, the company’s resoluteness to provide excellent standards in the roasting and serving of coffee is supported by Starbuck’s rigorous training program for all its partners/baristas.The program includes a minimum of 24 hours of training in the first two to four weeks of training and involves classes in coffee history, drink preparation, coffee knowledge and customer service. The enthusiastic development of satisfied customers all of the time. It is clear that Schultz is adamant about ensuring that customers are provided with the best experience every time they visit a Starbucks coffee shop. This meant paying careful attention to what pleases their customers.The company employs a customer-centric culture where they are trained to take extra measures to ensure that the customer was fully satisfied, and to employ a â€Å"just say yes† theme to customer requests. Make a positive cont ribution to the communities in which we operate our business. In order to give back to the communities in which their numerous shops reside, the company participates in many philanthropic events which are coordinated by the Starbucks Foundation. Some of their activities include participation in local charitable projects as well as community development activities.Recognition of profitability as essential to our success. Starbucks is aware that in being able to deliver in all of the aforementioned areas, that it will be able to enjoy the success that its shareholders desire. As a result, the company believes that it is fully accountable to performing well in each of these areas so that Starbucks and its various stakeholders can continue to â€Å"endure and thrive. † 5. What values does Starbucks have? How well do they connect to the strategy and the way the company conducts its business? 6. Social Responsibility: * C. A. F.E : Coffee and Farmer Equity- Partnership in which Sta rbucks sought to develop practices to help farmers grow high-quality coffees in ways that were good for the planet. This covered practices such as safe and humane working conditions including compliance with minimum wage requirements and child labor provisions) and environmental responsibility P359 * Definition for social responsibility- Wikipedia: Starbucks’ corporate culture involves the moral binding of partners to run the company’s operations with consideration of the well-being of others around them.Ie: the company purchases a growing percentage of coffees that Starbucks purchases are grown organically without the use of chemical fertiliziers, pesticides and herbicides. This supports the company’s devotion to socially responsible practices. Such efforts helps in maintaining the cleanliness of groundwater and prevents degradation of environmental ecosystems nearby. embrace As indicated by its countless efforts to manage business in a way that promotes social and environmental concern, Starbucks has very strong dedication to its corporate social responsibility.Not only has this effort to â€Å"build a company with soul† has also been ingrained in the company’s mission statement, Starbuck’s has also received wide recognition for its efforts in this area. In fact in 2010, the company was named to Corporate Responsibility’s list of â€Å"The 100 Best Corporate Citizens† for the 10th time. In addition the company has received over 25 awards for its efforts in the areas of philanthropic, community service and environmental activities.As one of its most noteworthy efforts, in 1997 the company established The Starbucks Foundation to organize the company’s philanthropic undertakings. Under the Foundation, many of its coffee shops participated in regular charity events and community improvement initiatives. Starbuck’s social responsibility is also reflected in its generosity towards worthy causes. For example, in 2005 the company made a $5 million, five year commitment to aid in the relief and recovery of victims of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.More recently in 2010, the company also donated funding worth $1 million to support the American Red Cross’ efforts to provide relief for those who survived the earthquake in Haiti. In view of such devout efforts to these environment and humanitarian concerns, it can definitely be argued that Starbuck’s social responsibility strategy is genuine. The company’s past and continued devotion to such undertakings support this conjecture, making it evident that Starbucks is true to its cause and is not only publicizing its social responsibility strategy to instil a positive image in its takeholders. 7. Assessment of Starbuck’s financial performance during 2005-2009? 8. Assessment of Schultz’s Transformation Agenda for Starbucks during 2008-2010? (C-363-C-363) Has he done a good job since his return as Starbu cks’ CEO? Why or why not? While Howard Schultz has managed to instil a very strong corporate culture based on delivering the best customer experience possible during his tenure at Starbucks, it seems that the guidance of the company under Jim Donald as CEO starting in 2006 has brought on cultural change.The introduction of Donald as the new CEO has brought on two factors of cultural change as indicated in Figure 1 below: shifting internal conditions (brought on by Donald’s assumption of role as Starbucks CEO) and rapid growth of the firm through his introduction of an aggressive corporate culture that pursued rapid store expansion at the expense of the long-established commitment to customer service.This new focus on aggressive growth with less emphasis on maintaining customer relationships spurred uneasiness amongst member of Starbuck’s board and eroded customer traffic in US stores starting in 2007. Investors became distressed about the company’s steadi ly declining stock price. As a result, in January of 2008, Starbucks asked Howard Schultz to overtake his original position as CEO. Thus he proposed to fix the inefficiencies that impaired Starbuck’s original customer-centric culture.This initiative was set out in a very well-developed set of directives which came to be known as Schultz’s 2008-2010 transformation agenda. By analyzing the various steps necessary in trying to implement change in a problem culture (shown in Figure 2 below), one can see that Schultz’s actions and numerous objectives as set out in his agenda are congruent with those outlined in these steps.Step1: Identify facets of the present culture that are conducive to good strategy execution and those that are not In his letter to All Starbucks Partners written in February 2008, Schultz makes it clear what he believes is necessary to return Starbuck’s at its original competitive position. Of the utmost importance is Howard Schultz’ s address of the waning of Starbuck’s emphasis on providing a distinct quality customer experience. He indicates has concern by saying â€Å"We are in the people business and always have been†¦It means you make the difference.We succeed in the marketplace†¦[by] embracing the values, guiding principles and culture of our company and bringing it to life one customer at a time. † As a result, in his letter Schultz affirms his goal to reintroduce a renewed clarity of purpose devoted to a â€Å"laser-focused† customer experience. Another of these beliefs is his continued persistence to include all employees as partners in the effort to move the company to success. Schultz continues to encourage employees to voice their opinions on how to improve the company’s operations.This makes evident Schultz ‘s belief in holding serious esteem of the opinions of employees. Such a practice is conductive to good strategy execution as he states: â€Å"thank you for your ideas and suggestions†¦keep them coming. No one knows our business and our customers better than you. † Step 2: Specify what new actions, behaviors and work practices should be prominent in the â€Å"new† culture With regards to revitalizing the company’s original customer-centric focus, Schultz clearly states â€Å"we are not going to embrace the status quo.Instead we will be curious, bold and innovative in our actions and, in doing so, we will exceed the expectation of our customers. † In addition Schultz outlines several new objectives in his transformation agenda which establishes the new culture. By analyzing some of these, it becomes evident that much prudence was taken in developing these objectives to correct some of Schultz’s own past inefficiencies.For example, instead of continuing an aggressive expansion policy, the agenda sets out to â€Å"slow the pace of new store openings in the US,† as well as â€Å"closing 900 underperforming company-operated stores in the US,† which were in close proximity of an existing Starbucks store and cannibalizing on its customer base. Step 3: Talk openly about the problems of the present culture and how new behaviors will improve company performance 9. Issues that confront the company as of mid 2010? What should management be worried about? 10. Recommendations to Schultz to sustain the company’s growth and support continued strong financial performance? Coffeehouse and Starbucks 1. Original Strategic Vision for Starbucks Howard Schultz’s original strategic vision was to transform Starbucks into a national company with an emphasis on placing great value on its employees. He believed that the key to success was for Starbucks to capitalize on its people; he wanted a somewhat decentralized organizational structure which emphasized the importance of including employees in the decision-making process. Schultz wanted to place an image of Starbucks as an employer that cared for the general well-being of its employees and one that employees could be take pride in being a part of.A key strategic objective espoused by Schultz in his original strategic vision was to transform Starbucks into â€Å"the most respected brand name in coffee and for the company to be admired for its corporate responsibility. † Also worth noting is the fact that after visiting Milan, Italy Schultz also made it part of his strategic vision to transform Starbucks as a remake of the Italian coffee bar culture. He wanted customers to perceive a visit to a Starbucks coffee shop as a social gathering where customers could grab a fresh-brewed beverage, meet their friends and visit.He believed that creating this emphasis on customer â€Å"experience† could distinguish Starbucks from its competitors. Schultz’s 2010 strategic vision for Starbucks is an extension of his original vision from the 1980s which has been expanded to include more innovative and cost cutting practices. It can also be argued that some of his new strategic objectives are more prudent instead of being fully aggressive. For example, while Schultz still believed that the company should continue to pursue international expansion, he makes it evident that this should be pursued at a slower, more methodical pace.In addition, with regards to the volume of stores in the US, he acknowledges the fact that expansion efforts were not properly coordinated with regards to the close proximities of many Starbucks shops. Therefore he closed 900 underperforming shops, three quarters of which were located three miles away from a nearby shop. The 2010 strategic vision also continued to emphasize the customer experience. He believed that employees have lost their â€Å"soul of the past† in their passion to educate customers about their products and provide customers with a quality experience .As a result in 2008, Schultz ordered 7,100 US stores to be temporarily shut down for three business hours to provide special training for store employees. The purpose of this was to give their baristas hands-on training to aid in improving the quality of the beverages they served. It was also an effort to renew and reignite Starbucks’ culture of a customer-centric focus to help employees understand the importance of a satisfying customer experience. Lastly, much innovation and cost-cutting practices were incorporated into the 2010 strategic vision.For example as part of a seri ous cost-cutting strategy, the company undertook a 1000-person cut in staffing to cut down on administrative costs from the company’s organizational support infrastructure. With regards to innovation, the company also implemented ideas such as internet-based software for scheduling work hours for store employees and new resources such as laptops for store employees. Innovation was also implemented in the products the company offers.An example of this is the launch of VIA instant coffees and menu items designed to offer healthy breakfast choices for people with busy lifestyles such as fruit cups and healthier bakery selections. 2. Has Starbuck’s strategy evolved as the strategic vision has evolved? 3 . The Broad Differentiation strategy most closely approximates the competitive approach used by Starbucks. This is supported by the fact that the company’s target segment is not limited to a specific niche market.As reinforced by the company’s resurging commit ment to expand to global markets, it is committed to serving the needs of a broad market with widely diverse preferences. Supporting Starbuck’s use of a Broad Differentiation strategy is the fact that Starbucks tries to distinguish itself from competitors by offering a service devoted to going the extra mile to deliver a satisfying customer experience. This is congruent with the company’s theme of â€Å"just say yes† to customer requests.Another key aspect of the Broad Differentiation strategy that Starbucks practices is the offer of a wide selection of products which emphasize differentiating attributes. An example of this would be Starbuck’s introduction of VIA Ready Brew Coffee. These were packets of coffee that could be prepared instantly by simply adding them to a cup of water. VIA coffee had the superior attribute of easy preparation while replicating the same rich full-bodied taste of fresh-brewed coffee delivered by Starbucks from its coffeehouses .Another unique product introduced by Starbucks with a differentiating feature is the introduction of Vivanno â€Å"better-for-you† smoothies. These smoothies offered those health-conscious customers with little to think about with only 250 calories, one serving of fruit, 16 grams of proten and 5 grams of fiber. 4 The key policies, practices, principles and procedures that underlie how Howard Schultz and Starbucks management have implemented and executed the company’s strategy are as follows: Emphasis on providing employees with a caring, desirable work environment in which they can contribute to the success and development of the company.It is clear that Shultz believes in taking care of his employees to win their commitment to enhancing the well-being of the company. As evidence, Schultz instilled a comprehensive benefits package which unlike the norm for other businesses, were offered not only to full-time employees but part-time employees as well. In order to empha size the connection between employee contributions and the company’s market value, Schultz also implemented Bean Stock- Starbuck’s stock option plan.The purpose of this was to allow each employee to become a partner and share in the success of the company to promote a positive long-term effect on the company’s operations. Applying ethical and high standards of excellence to the purchasing, roasting and fresh delivery of coffee. Evidence for Starbuck’s commitment to ethical sourcing of its coffee can be supported by its partnership with Conservation International Center to develop Coffee and Farmer Equity (C. A. F. E. ) Practices. Such practices were designed to help farmers grow coffee in ways that prevented harm to the planet.These practices were designed to cover safe and humane working conditions (ensuring congruence with minimum wage requirements as well as child labor provisions), and making sure that the prices Starbucks paid were sufficient to allo w farmers to cover their production costs and provide for their families. In addition, the company’s resoluteness to provide excellent standards in the roasting and serving of coffee is supported by Starbuck’s rigorous training program for all its partners/baristas.The program includes a minimum of 24 hours of training in the first two to four weeks of training and involves classes in coffee history, drink preparation, coffee knowledge and customer service. The enthusiastic development of satisfied customers all of the time. It is clear that Schultz is adamant about ensuring that customers are provided with the best experience every time they visit a Starbucks coffee shop. This meant paying careful attention to what pleases their customers.The company employs a customer-centric culture where they are trained to take extra measures to ensure that the customer was fully satisfied, and to employ a â€Å"just say yes† theme to customer requests. Make a positive cont ribution to the communities in which we operate our business. In order to give back to the communities in which their numerous shops reside, the company participates in many philanthropic events which are coordinated by the Starbucks Foundation. Some of their activities include participation in local charitable projects as well as community development activities.Recognition of profitability as essential to our success. Starbucks is aware that in being able to deliver in all of the aforementioned areas, that it will be able to enjoy the success that its shareholders desire. As a result, the company believes that it is fully accountable to performing well in each of these areas so that Starbucks and its various stakeholders can continue to â€Å"endure and thrive. † 5. What values does Starbucks have? How well do they connect to the strategy and the way the company conducts its business? 6. Social Responsibility: * C. A. F.E : Coffee and Farmer Equity- Partnership in which Sta rbucks sought to develop practices to help farmers grow high-quality coffees in ways that were good for the planet. This covered practices such as safe and humane working conditions including compliance with minimum wage requirements and child labor provisions) and environmental responsibility P359 * Definition for social responsibility- Wikipedia: Starbucks’ corporate culture involves the moral binding of partners to run the company’s operations with consideration of the well-being of others around them.Ie: the company purchases a growing percentage of coffees that Starbucks purchases are grown organically without the use of chemical fertiliziers, pesticides and herbicides. This supports the company’s devotion to socially responsible practices. Such efforts helps in maintaining the cleanliness of groundwater and prevents degradation of environmental ecosystems nearby. embrace As indicated by its countless efforts to manage business in a way that promotes social and environmental concern, Starbucks has very strong dedication to its corporate social responsibility.Not only has this effort to â€Å"build a company with soul† has also been ingrained in the company’s mission statement, Starbuck’s has also received wide recognition for its efforts in this area. In fact in 2010, the company was named to Corporate Responsibility’s list of â€Å"The 100 Best Corporate Citizens† for the 10th time. In addition the company has received over 25 awards for its efforts in the areas of philanthropic, community service and environmental activities.As one of its most noteworthy efforts, in 1997 the company established The Starbucks Foundation to organize the company’s philanthropic undertakings. Under the Foundation, many of its coffee shops participated in regular charity events and community improvement initiatives. Starbuck’s social responsibility is also reflected in its generosity towards worthy causes. For example, in 2005 the company made a $5 million, five year commitment to aid in the relief and recovery of victims of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.More recently in 2010, the company also donated funding worth $1 million to support the American Red Cross’ efforts to provide relief for those who survived the earthquake in Haiti. In view of such devout efforts to these environment and humanitarian concerns, it can definitely be argued that Starbuck’s social responsibility strategy is genuine. The company’s past and continued devotion to such undertakings support this conjecture, making it evident that Starbucks is true to its cause and is not only publicizing its social responsibility strategy to instil a positive image in its takeholders. 7. Assessment of Starbuck’s financial performance during 2005-2009? 8. Assessment of Schultz’s Transformation Agenda for Starbucks during 2008-2010? (C-363-C-363) Has he done a good job since his return as Starbu cks’ CEO? Why or why not? While Howard Schultz has managed to instil a very strong corporate culture based on delivering the best customer experience possible during his tenure at Starbucks, it seems that the guidance of the company under Jim Donald as CEO starting in 2006 has brought on cultural change.The introduction of Donald as the new CEO has brought on two factors of cultural change as indicated in Figure 1 below: shifting internal conditions (brought on by Donald’s assumption of role as Starbucks CEO) and rapid growth of the firm through his introduction of an aggressive corporate culture that pursued rapid store expansion at the expense of the long-established commitment to customer service.This new focus on aggressive growth with less emphasis on maintaining customer relationships spurred uneasiness amongst member of Starbuck’s board and eroded customer traffic in US stores starting in 2007. Investors became distressed about the company’s steadi ly declining stock price. As a result, in January of 2008, Starbucks asked Howard Schultz to overtake his original position as CEO. Thus he proposed to fix the inefficiencies that impaired Starbuck’s original customer-centric culture.This initiative was set out in a very well-developed set of directives which came to be known as Schultz’s 2008-2010 transformation agenda. By analyzing the various steps necessary in trying to implement change in a problem culture (shown in Figure 2 below), one can see that Schultz’s actions and numerous objectives as set out in his agenda are congruent with those outlined in these steps.Step1: Identify facets of the present culture that are conducive to good strategy execution and those that are not In his letter to All Starbucks Partners written in February 2008, Schultz makes it clear what he believes is necessary to return Starbuck’s at its original competitive position. Of the utmost importance is Howard Schultz’ s address of the waning of Starbuck’s emphasis on providing a distinct quality customer experience. He indicates has concern by saying â€Å"We are in the people business and always have been†¦It means you make the difference.We succeed in the marketplace†¦[by] embracing the values, guiding principles and culture of our company and bringing it to life one customer at a time. † As a result, in his letter Schultz affirms his goal to reintroduce a renewed clarity of purpose devoted to a â€Å"laser-focused† customer experience. Another of these beliefs is his continued persistence to include all employees as partners in the effort to move the company to success. Schultz continues to encourage employees to voice their opinions on how to improve the company’s operations.This makes evident Schultz ‘s belief in holding serious esteem of the opinions of employees. Such a practice is conductive to good strategy execution as he states: â€Å"thank you for your ideas and suggestions†¦keep them coming. No one knows our business and our customers better than you. † Step 2: Specify what new actions, behaviors and work practices should be prominent in the â€Å"new† culture With regards to revitalizing the company’s original customer-centric focus, Schultz clearly states â€Å"we are not going to embrace the status quo.Instead we will be curious, bold and innovative in our actions and, in doing so, we will exceed the expectation of our customers. † In addition Schultz outlines several new objectives in his transformation agenda which establishes the new culture. By analyzing some of these, it becomes evident that much prudence was taken in developing these objectives to correct some of Schultz’s own past inefficiencies.For example, instead of continuing an aggressive expansion policy, the agenda sets out to â€Å"slow the pace of new store openings in the US,† as well as â€Å"closing 900 underperforming company-operated stores in the US,† which were in close proximity of an existing Starbucks store and cannibalizing on its customer base. Step 3: Talk openly about the problems of the present culture and how new behaviors will improve company performance 9. Issues that confront the company as of mid 2010? What should management be worried about? 10. Recommendations to Schultz to sustain the company’s growth and support continued strong financial performance?

Transforming of South Korean Economy and the “Chaebols”’ Riddle

Nadezhda Sarelska ID: 10210680317 EMA- Chinese Economy School of Economics Fudan University Transforming of South Korean Economy and the â€Å"Chaebols†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ riddle Political Economy of East Asia Term Paper Professor Dingping Guo October, 2012 Shanghai, China Table of contents: 1. Introduction 3 2. The beginning of Korea 4 2. 1. Collective will for success of South Korea 6 3.South Korea and modern economy 7 3. 1 Reasons behind Economic growth 8 4. The Birth of â€Å"Chaebols† 9 4. 1 Factors of Development of â€Å"Chaebols 10 4. 2 â€Å"Chaebol† and 1977 Asian Crisis 14 5. Case Study of Samsung Group 15 6. Conclusion and Recommendation 19 . Reference List 21 1. Introduction South Koreas ‘s significant transformation – an evolution from impoverished to high-income economy during three decades starting from 1960s to 1990s is one of Asian phenomena famous as -â€Å"Four Asian Tigers†- a term used to describe the tremendous performance of four Asian economies – Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan and South Korea. Between the early 1960s and 1997s, the four Tigers rapidly industrialized and maintained sustained high growth rates (Ref*1).Today, Korea is an example for a market economy, one highly developed country which ranks 15th in the world by nominal GDP and 12th by purchasing power parity (PPP), identifying it as one of the G-20 major economies(Ref*2). In 2010, Korea’s trade volume amounted to US$892 billion, ranking the country the 7th largest exporter in the world(Ref*2). Korea’s shipbuilding sector currently accounts for about 34% of the world’s total shipbuilding orders. As a major auto manufacturer, Korea produces over 4. 2 million vehicles annually.The success of South Korea is often called â€Å"The Miracle on the Han River† and it has been identified by several factors where the presidency of Park Chung-Hee (1961-1979) played a vital role. Under the President Park Chung-Hee’s era, the government played a dominating role in a country’s economy. His policies of shifting away the focus from import substitution strategies towards export- orientated industrialization and technical progress, favored the development of South Korean economy and establishment of a strong business environment appeared with a result of large conglomerates called â€Å"Chaebols†.To be defined as a â€Å"Chaebol†, an organization should satisfy two conditions: it should be owned by family /relatives members and it should have a diversified business operations ( REF*3). The â€Å"Chaebols† have created such a diversification that, as Anna Fifield said in her article, – â€Å"You can be born in a Samsung hospital and end up in a Samsung mortuary† (Ref*4). The giants of yesterday are one of today’s best brands in technology field as Samsung, Hyundai and LG. They and the other â€Å"Chaebols† was the core of Korean spectacular grow th and still their success can be accepted as South Korea’s success.How and why Korean’s economy was shaped by historical events and what are the reasons behind â€Å"Chaebol† establishment? What was the impact they have created over South Korean economy and could we say â€Å"Chaebols†are the reason for â€Å"the Miracle on the Han River. â€Å"? Case study of Samsung will be performed in order to give us better understanding of one of the largest and famous â€Å"Chaebol† ever and its influence over South Korean economy. 2. The Beginning of Korea The land of the morning calmâ€Å"–this is the meaning of Korea’s original name â€Å"Choson†.The time of establishment of this country and its exact geographic location is still a matter of scientific research even it often believed that human activity in Korea can be traced far into the Pal eolithic period, about 500,000 years ago (Ref*5). In Asia, Korean’s history is kno wn to be second longest following that only of China. (Ref*6) But there is a belief, according to the Korean legend, that the God-King Tangun – a legendary figure born of the son of Heaven, (which existence is still disputable among scholars) and a woman from a bear-totem tribe founded the Korean nation in BC 2333(Ref* 7).Not many present- day nations can be praised with so long and rich history even this country's time has been shaped by difficult and frequent invasions ( as many as 900 by some accounts)( Ref*6), wars and influence from its neighbors. The beginning was often said to be the time of â€Å"The Three Kingdoms† – â€Å"Silla† â€Å"Goguryeo† and â€Å"Baekche† where â€Å"Goguryeo† was known to occupy the Northern part of the peninsula from the Chinese border to the Han River, while â€Å"Silla† and â€Å"Baekche† have dominated the Southern regions (Ref. 11).But in 668 AD â€Å"Silla† (668-935) unifi ed the Korean peninsula and start developing a country with an economy, a culture and Buddhist philosophy. † Koryo dynasty† from which the English name â€Å"Korea† originates succeeded â€Å"Silla† in 935 and the country’s boundaries reached level which is very similar to its current size today. â€Å"The Choson dynasty† displaced â€Å"Koryo dynasty† in 1392 and moved the capital to Hanyang-gun (today's Seoul) in 1394. Soon after Confucianism replaced Buddhist philosophy and was adopted as the country's official religion and â€Å"Hangul† -the Korean alphabet was invented.Korea’s history was filled with prosperity, but also a lot of suffering coming from external forces like Japan, Mongolia and China and this provoked Korean closed-door policy, famous as â€Å"Hermit kingdom†. In the beginning in 1876, the Japanese forced a series of Western-style trade agreements on Korea, leading to Japan's annexation of the cou ntry in 1910. Due to growing anti-Japanese sentiment, in 1897 King Kojong declared himself to be emperor of the Taehan Empire, an independent Korea (Ref*9). Eventually this move helped Korea to preserve its own language, culture, traditions and sense of identity (Ref*6).However, during the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), Japanese forces moved onto the peninsula despite Korean declarations of neutrality and Japan-Korea Protection Treaty in 1905 gave Japan virtual control over Korea. Korea was colonized by Japan in 1910 year, but exactly at that time many modern aspects of Korean society emerged included rapid urban growth and infrastructure, the expansion of commerce, and forms of mass culture such as radio and cinema, which became widespread for the first time. Later had to endure the Korean War (1950-53), but it has achieved amazing economic growth in a short period, dubbed â€Å"the Miracle on the Han River. (Ref* 2) 2. 1 Collective will for success of South Korea During Japanese influence starting 1920 and later (1937-45) – harsh measured reintroduced by Japanese, Korea had to go through a lot of confusion coming from changes in values and social order after Japanese colonial rules was introduced (Ref* 6&10). During its occupation, Japan built up Korea's infrastructure, especially the street and railroad systems. However, the Japanese ruled with an iron fist and attempted to root out all elements of Korean culture from society.People were forced to adopt Japanese names, convert to the Shinto (native Japanese) religion, and were forbidden to use Korean language in schools and business. Also the temp of development was rapid and the country’s population was inexperienced and unprepared in economic aspects and knowledge because was coming for monarchy of over 1000years compared to Europe and Japan. Ideological confrontation was visible in Korean society and soon after status of families with long traditions; history and wealth were no more subje cts of respect and power, society followed the â€Å"money ideology† which was a way of survival.Soon after the democracy was introduced by USA in August 15, 1945, with the end of World War II, The Soviets and Americans failed to reach an agreement on one unified country and government, so in 1948 two separate governments were established – the Republic of Korea in Seoul called -â€Å"The American zone†, and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea in Pyongyang, North Korea called -â€Å"The Soviet zone† (Ref* 10).This is how the challenge for South Korea and â€Å"The American zone† has started with era of knowledge, where an investment of fond and solid education and hard work were again respectable, thus offered an equal chance to success to everybody despite their origin and status. The whole society desired a better life and this is how they have adopted the concept that â€Å"economic development is a cultural product representing th e collective will of the people† (Ref*6). 3. South Korea’s modern economyIn July 1953, after three years of bloody fighting in which around three million Koreans, one million Chinese, 54 000 Americans and several other nations including Turkish were killed, the Korean War ended in a truce with Korea still divided into two mutually antagonistic states – American influenced zone in South and Soviet influenced in North, which were separated by a line called â€Å"De-Militarized Zone† (DMZ). Korea has remained divided ever since(Ref*10). After the official division of Korean peninsula, a modern economy study was introduced by USA in South Korea which was differentiated from Marxism idea popular in Japan.However, after 1965 when Japan and South Korea improved their diplomatic relationships, Marxism prevailed into their economy simply because was more community oriented, instead individualistic – something which was and it is a basic concept of Confuciani sm which was influenced South Korea in their earlier stages of history. The ideas of individualistic consumer with no intervention of government for business were too far away of Japan’s model of successful rapid grow which later in years South Korea adopted and adapted into their economic situation Table 1 – Comparison between USA and East Asian capitalism 3. 1 Reasons behind Economic growthMutual desire for better standard of living and a chance for success were deeply rooted into society’s mind, after the country was left in poverty in the end of Korean War in 1953. The significant growth of South Korea's economy which became independent in 1945 began in May of 1960 – when Park Chung Hee and a group of other military officers of the South Korean army took over the control of the government or â€Å"coup d’etat†(Ref* 11). Soon after that in 1961 Mr. Park Chung Lee became president of South Korea and the strategic planning for economic deve lopment started – focusing on lifting up the South Korean economy out of poverty.The strategy Park Chung Lee developed was based on that of South Korea's nearest rivals Japan rather than Western policy advisers. (Ref*12) Export –oriented policies were implementing as a tool trying to focus the shift into international business. South Korea simply had to survive and find a way to expand economically, but looking outside of its peninsula because with its small and limited land and natural resources caused from its mountainous terrain and climate, as well the small size of the domestic market shaped the Paradigm shift in their economy†. (Ref*13) The emphasis was added on communal productivity, education and quality as Japan did with examples of so called Keiretsu. Another measure was the military-dominated government which installed itself after the coup in 1961 quickly announced an end to the corruption of the First Republic and its intention to use economic growth and development through industrialization to legitimize its authority (Ref* 14) and implementing state policies providing the basis for successful late industrialization( Ref*15).Twenty four of the leading businessmen were arrested. The founder of Samsung, Lee Byung Chull, escaped this treatment only because he was out of the country at the time. When Lee Byung Chull returned to Korea he met with Park and agreed to cooperate with Park's economic development program. Later Lee and other prominent business leaders offered to donate all or a substantial portion of their fortunes to the government. They ended up paying fines but not giving up their businesses (Ref* 15). 4. The Birth of â€Å"Chaebols†In the process of export-led market economy the government ruled by President Park Chung Lee for 18 years reign (1961-1979) decided to work with five- year’s plans, starting the first one in 1962 which was focused on developing the industrial base and setting the stage for So uth Korea’s economic prosperity. (Ref* 16) After this step, the government encouraged their local, domestic business enterprises to work and expand by choosing which markets must be developed and allow entry only to several of those local companies.To be accepted as â€Å"Chaebol† a company need to be family-owned and usually this type of organization is influenced by growth-oriented family-centered business, where family male has the dominant role in a hierarchy and almost unlimited power to which his subordinates are loyal (Ref*17). This idea of Pyramid frame of working had an origin of Confucianism which teached several concepts as social hierarchy, harmony and â€Å"the concept of saving face†, kindness and care; modesty and diligence.For instance, in Japanese companies â€Å"had more visible mutual obligation which is unlikely to be seen in â€Å"Chaebol† structure, where the boss is superior compared to employees. As an incentive for local companie s, financial motivations were offered such as low- interest loan, tax breaks and others simply because all the banks were nationalized as well for the purpose of economic development. This is how so called â€Å"Chaebols† -which literally mean â€Å"business association†, were born into South Korean history. 4. 1 Factors of Development of â€Å"Chaebols†With its fast speed of industrialization, the economy nourished and supported heavily â€Å"Chaebols† which were often â€Å"family-centered† enterprises. Their brands, products and companies diversified quickly and soon they were responsible for the majority of the exported products which simply meant that private owned companies were responsible for biggest share of South Korea economic development. Not only have they expanded in international level, but also started to grow bigger in local land. Brands like Samsung, Hyundai and LG were a measure for quality, technology and innovation.We could say that even today the same conglomerates are still driver force in Korea. Another â€Å"significant economic decision made by government’s planners was to focus market development through export-oriented industrialization â€Å"(Ref* 18). Because of its enough to produce, but less to consume population and still not existing local markets, all efforts were putting into creating international markets where South Korea could have an advantage and generate a profit. The results started to be visible in fast digit rate at average 10% annual growth between 1962 and 1994.The large and fast expanding multinational conglomerates enjoyed strong support from government and good success of foreign markets. While the contribution of agriculture to the economy declined from 37% in 1965 to 3% in 2008, the industrial sector increased its contribution from 20% to 37%, that of services from 43% to 60% and exports remain the cornerstone of this economic development with their share in GDP acc elerating from 8% in 1965 to a whopping 53% in 2008(Ref* 13). Table 2 Share of Top 30 â€Å"Chaebols† in South Korea’s GDPSource â€Å"Chaebol Powered Industrial Transformation† by Ahn Choong-yong, Korea Institute of Public Administration and Korea Times. April 2010 All the conglomerates were liberally permitted to access foreign loans promoted by the government to support fast-paced economic development, while in contrast outflows of domestic capital were effectively curbed ( Ref* 19). The Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) was also restricted in order to keep positive economic growth, except in cases where technology and know-how were involved.In exchange of this, all the â€Å"Chaebols† were obliged to fulfill ambitious plans and to develop for the next three decades. This financial help actually protected the companies from bankruptcy and soon they turned on into â€Å"octopus†, regulating and expanding into more and more branches, industries and brands, even not related to their core scope of business; increasing their power and wealth into public level and became too difficult their decisions to be influenced. For example, a ship building company could decide to enter into a market of cosmetics products or pharmaceutical industry.Of course, simultaneously they opened more factories, created jobs and promoted economic boom. Basically they became a voice in South Korea. In this manner they grew so large that the top fifty â€Å"Chaebols† had sales equivalent to almost 94% of the total national GDP by 1984( Ref*20). In fact as a second measure introduced from President Park Chung Lee was diversifying of â€Å"Chaebol† into heavy and chemical industries, simply to be protected from North Korea . ( Ref*21)As we can see on Table 2, their share in GDP increased dramatically from 9,8 % in 1973 to 29,6% 1989Table 3 The Growth Rate and Total Factor Productivity by country According to International Institute for Manage ment, South Korea is ranked 5th in terms of education level, with 40 percent of the population completing higher education after high school. This movement into very strong foundation of education was resulted of democracy brought by USA , President Park Chung Lee’s reforms, but also Confucianism’s which, was earlier in history, influenced the social mind of South Korea. Understanding that high level of education and qualified human resources are powerful driver of economy and quality was one of the best tools for sustainable growth. Education system which was a resource highly appreciated by traditional values in the society and was a chance for everybody in quest of success. Moreover, South Korean workers work more hours of the day than most countries reflecting 10 to 13 percent increases in productivity per year( Ref*22). The willingness of hard-working and co-operating were very important for the efficacy and quality of the economic boom.Krugman (1994) claims that the â€Å"Four tigers† achieved the rapid growth rate because they successfully managed the resources associated with high employment share to population, efficacy of work, up-graded educational standards and the high rate of investment(Ref*19). Looking into Table 3, it is clear that South Korea achieved the highest grow rate of 8,5% per cent annually from 1960 to1994. Table 4 Domestic Saving per GDP (per cent) Another tool which helped â€Å"Chaebols† to flourish was high-saving ratio, which was initially originated from uncertain life conditions and missing social system.In Korea the social welfare system was not well established (Ref*23). In this kind of situation, similar to China’s beginning, individuals are trying to save as much as they can in order to ensure their future. Furthermore, high savings and investments also contribute to capital accumulation. For example, Kim and Lau (1996) extend their input-analysis which covers Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines reveal that capital accumulation associated with high domestic saving and investment level significantly contributed to strong growth in East Asia.Also, Collins and Bosworth (1996) emphasize that saving, investment and government policy are the main contributor to high capital accumulation ( Ref. 19) 4. 2. â€Å"Chaebols† and 1997 Asian Crisis The financial crisis that hit Asian countries in early July 1997 was an unexpected situation for â€Å"Four Tigers† including South Korea which were witnessed a rapid and sustainable growth in several decades in row, offering high standard of living into their citizens, high annual growth and successful export economy. They were accepted and perceived as models of economic boom.A lot of foreign investment were flowing and then government help like bank loan , preferential policies and incentives which were used to stimulate the economy through so called multinational companies â€Å"Chaebols† . All thi s led to excessive diversification, a debt, a difficulty to be measured the credibility of a company and its real proportion due to unlimited bank loan with 0 interest they were given; lack of business transparency, superior managerial behavior and more. All these reasons led to so called† â€Å"Asian Contagion†, this was a series of currency devaluations and other events  that spread through  many Asian markets.As a result of the crisis, South Korea adopted different protectionist measures, government and financial reforms to ensure the stability of their own currency and reforms inside of â€Å"Chaebols† structures. ( Ref*24). 5. Case of Samsung Group Samsung Electronics integral part of is a multinational, family-owned company with headquarters located in Samsung Town in Seoul called â€Å"Samsung Group†. Samsung Group has grown to become one of the world's leading and respectuful electronics companies, specializing in digital appliances and media, scycrapers, petrochemicals, fashion, medicine, hotels, semiconductors, memory, and system integration. Ref *25). As journalist Anna Fifield said in her article, – â€Å"You can be born in a Samsung hospital and end up in a Samsung mortuary† (Ref*4). They operate in more than 65 different countries as sales and plants; also they are responsible for appointing for more than 170,000 employees worldwide. In 2009 the company was classified as largest IT Company in world with biggest sales revenue of memory chips, LCD and LED displays. For TV and smart phones devices markets, Samsung is in top position, especially after launching Galaxy 2 Note competing with Apple and theirs I pad mini and I phone.Its growing share in smart phones and tablet’s market is very high with around 20% for the first quarter in 2011 compared to 16, 1% in same time previous year. [pic] Brief history and Economic Overview The Samsung Group was established in 1938 in Taegu, Korea by Byung Chull Lee and its main scope of business was export of fish, vegetables and fruits to Mainland China. In 1951, Samsung Corporation was officially established with name Samsung Moolsan which means â€Å"Three Stars† (Ref*25).The company started to grow and later in 1958 when Ankuk Fire& Marine Insurance as well DongBang Life Insurance in 1963 was acquired, the name was changed into Samsung Fire& Marine Insurance and respectfully Samsung Life Insurance. In 1969 Samsung Electronics and Samsung Sanyo Electronics were established, but in 1977 they also merged and diversifying started into heavy, chemical, shipbuilding, IT and other industries. The reasons behind such a diversification could be the same between all â€Å"Chaebols† examples, but very true for Samsung.They assumed that if investing into new business or a product will avoid potential risk of a single bankrupt, gaining knowledge for a technology and know-how patents; competitions and bigger market share and another fa ctor could be because of persuading better wealth in order to ensure all the family members. ( Ref* 21) Thanks to its clever moves and business/political decisions Samsung developed excellent domestic and international market and 1974 they bought 50% of share of Korea Semiconductors, which gave them the first place of semiconductor manufacture SWOT ANALYSISSamsung Group is one of the largest â€Å"Chaebols† in South Korea with world-class quality products and brand. The company has dominance into digital and electronic components markets, with more than 40 existing affiliated companies. Fig. 1 SWOT ANALYSES – Samsung Group STRENGTHS Strong brand and loyal customers; Leader in several markets as IT and electronics; Excellent supply chain; Capital; Confidence; Trustworthy and Credibility; Innovation; Technology level and skilled worker HR; Product Strategy WEAKNESS Serious Competition; High Marketing cost; Managerial Behavior; Centralization; CorruptionOPPORTUNITIES Good economic conditions; highly disposable income local market; Government support; International relations and business expanse; Technology development THREATS Patent’s legislations; Regulatory issues; Technological changes; Economic Crisis; China Table 5 Samsung Electronics Marketing Expenses Marketing Mix for Samsung Group – 4P Product Strategy – Samsung’s diversified line of products in 3D market for example which is offering LTD, LED and Plasma TV is one of best positioned into product strategy.Their electronic market is also very good example for product strategy which is one of their strengths in SWOT analyses Focusing on unique products and innovation to compete like 3D Plasma TV with unique design and functionality allowed Samsung to became a leader into this direction. Another very well presented idea of their product strategy is smart phone Galaxy Note 2 which competes directly with Apple’s I pad mini. Among some of the benefits of Galaxy N ote 2 is its display, price, Android operating system, Bluetooth, slightly lighter, removable memory, flash, front camera/rear camera and few more. Ref* 26). At the moment this is the best tablet produced by Samsung and as product strategy unique was chosen and improvement inside of the functionality. Price strategy – Samsung strategy according their pricing is being available for more consumers than I pad mini/ I phone, which is persuaded as a luxury and fashionable product, thus its price differentiates – sometimes even double less expensive. Another factor regarding price is that Samsung produce a big amount of it’s and also Apple’s components’ which results into higher cost and price for Apple’s products on market.Thanks to diversification mentioned earlier we can see that Samsung actually have the advantage to produce by themselves most of the electronic components of their smart phones/ tablets, but also to their competitors, so they b ecame superior in the Pyramid. Promotion strategy: This is one of most weak part of SWOT Analyses of Samsung, because it cost billions of USD in advertisements and promotions which are conducted in three continents – Europe, Asia and USA. 8 billion USD were spending in Europe compared to 3 billion in Asia and 12 billion in North America.Using famous American singer/groups such as Black Eyes Peas into their promotion strategy is adding high cost for the â€Å"Chaebol†. Product Placement: The strategic idea here is that Samsung tablets Galaxy 2 Note are not positioned on the luxury market, but at the same time will not be sold in low-level stores as Wal-Mart. Targeting young people across three continents, Samsung focused on uniqueness, creativity, design and promotion. Apple’s product focuses on luxury and fashionable segment of the market where consumers are ready to pay more premiums. Conclusion and Recommendations Transforming South Korea’s economy was an experiment and example of â€Å"Tiger measures† conducted by the government of President Park Chung Hee in quest of best way to expand the economy in sustainable way and improve the quality of people equally. Focusing on export-oriented economy with solid foundation of education, willingness of hard-work, high saving ratio and allowance of private family- own enterprises in national sectors and important industries helped â€Å"The Miracle on the Han River† to become history of success. Chaebols† were and still are enormous part of South Korean Economy, which for three decades created a country -an example for a market economy, which ranks 15th in the world by nominal GDP and 12th by purchasing power parity (PPP), identifying it as one of the G-20 major economies (Ref*2). In 2010, Korea’s trade volume amounted to US$892 billion, ranking the country the 7th largest exporter in the world(Ref*2). Korea’s shipbuilding sector currently accounts for ab out 34% of the world’s total shipbuilding orders. As a major auto manufacturer, Korea produces over 4. million vehicles annually. The majority of export related goods are produced by top â€Å"Chaebols† companies which appeared in late 60s after government of Park Chung Hee offered them unlimited incentives and industries in exchange of economic growth with 10% on average. The impact of those conglomerates was measurable and visible, even though 1997 Asian crisis shaped up them and reformed these â€Å"octopus† inner structures by implementing more transparent policies and less corruption. Nowadays â€Å"Chaebols† are still the driver of South Korean’s income and economy.As recommendation for the largest â€Å"Chaebol† at the moments, Samsung Group- focusing on innovation and technology improvement will be useful, because China is starting to emerge and also other competitors are weak point for Samsung. Combing their efforts could be a good strategy in order to protect South Korean’s reputation and export share. Focusing on domestic market and not being so dependent on export. Or being sure that export is enough diversified to keep the profit. Reducing Marketing cost via cheaper, but creative techniques to attract and keep customers. Because for quality there is always a market! Reference List: . Fogel, R. W. (2005). Reconsidering expectations of economic growth after World War II fromthe perspective of 2004. IMF Staff Papers, Vol. 52 Special Issues, Washington, DC:International Monetary Fund. 2. Published by Korean Culture and Information Service Retrieved October 2, 2012, from http://www. scribd. com/doc/85568568/Facts-about-Korea-English 3. Retrieved October 3, 2012, from https://www. fsb. muohio. edu/mis399/student/Reading%20files/history-china-korea-japan. htm . 4. Fifield, A. (March 26, 2008). http://www. ft. com. In Korea’s Bulldozer must clean up the Chaebol. Retrieved October 14, 2012, from http: //www. t. com/intl/cms/s/0/97182b8e-fb3f-11dc-8c3e-000077b07658. html#axzz2LbBBYYrW. 5. http://www. lifeinkorea. com/information/history1. cfm 6. Choo, Myung-Gun. 2000. Chapter 4: South Korea: the Tragedy of Partition and the Response, in  The New Asia in Global Perspective, p. 74-5 7. https://www. fsb. muohio. edu/mis399/student/Reading%20files/history-china-korea-japan. htm. Retrieved October 3, 2012 8. ,, 9. http://www. lifeinkorea. com/information/history1. cfm 10. http://afe. easia. columbia. edu/main_pop/kpct/kp_koreaimperialism. htm 11. Education, Wikipedia , Retrieved October 9, 2012, from http://en. wikipedia. rg/wiki/Park_Chung-hee 12. Hattori, T. ,1986 â€Å"Comparison of Large Corporations in Korea and Japan, â€Å" in Hakjon Lee and Kuhyun Chung, eds. , The structure and strategy of Korean Corporation ( Seoul, Korea: Bupmunsa, 1986)p. 151 13. November,2010. , The Chaebol in South Korea: Spearheading Economic Growth. ,Thomas White International, Ltd, Retrieved Octobe r 12, 2012, from http://www. thomaswhite. com/explore-the-world/emerging-market-spotlight/2010/south-korea-chaebols. aspx p. 2 14. Kae H. Chung, Hak Chong Lee, and Ku Hyun Jung, Korean Management: Global Strategy and Cultural Transformation ( Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1997) p. 15. Retrieved October 15,2012, from http://www. sjsu. edu/faculty/watkins/park. htm Sources: †¢ Clifford,  L. M. Troubled Tiger: Businessmen, Bureaucrats, and Generals in South Korea, M. E. Sharpe, Armonk, New York, 1994. †¢ Hee, C. P. To Build a Nation, Acropolis Books, Washington, D. C. , 1971. †¢ Hee, C. P. The Country, The Revolution and I, Hollym Corporation Publishers, Seoul, Korea, 1970. †¢ Hee, C. P. Our Nation's Path: Ideology of Social Reconstruction, Hollym Corporation Publishers, Seoul, Korea, 1970. 16. Jasper, Kim Crisis and Change : South Korea in a Post-1997 New Era ( Seoul: Ehwa Womans University Press, 2005)p. 7 17. March, 2006. , The Case of Chaebol Cult, Asian Manageme nt, Retrieved October 5, 2012, from . PDF version 18. Jasper, Kim Crisis and Change : South Korea in a Post-1997 New Era ( Seoul: Ehwa Womans University Press, 2005)p. 17 19. http://ecostat. wordpress. com/2012/08/19/capital-accumulation-or-total-factor-productivity/ 20. Fields. J. K. , Enterprise and the State in Korea and Taiwan ( Cornall University Press, 1995) p. 35 21. Ahn(2001), pg420and Pn, E. ,†South Korea’s role in a dangerous neighbourhood† http://www. nytimes. com/cfr/international/slot3_021106. html 22. (2006, 03). Korean Economy. StudyMode. com.Retrieved October 15, 2011, from http://www. studymode. com/essays/Korean-Economy-83006. html 23. Choo, Myung-Gun. 2000. Chapter 4: South Korea: the Tragedy of Partition and the Response, in The New Asia in Global Perspective, p. 79 24. Education, Investopedia Retrieved October 18, 2012, from http://www. investopedia. com/terms/a/asian-financial-crisis. asp#axzz29i6XywR2 25. SAMSUNG Group Official WebPage, Retr ieved October 3, 2101 from http://www. samsung. com/us/aboutsamsung/corporateprofile/history06. html 26. http://tablets. venturebeat. com/compare/46-123/Apple-iPad-2-with-Wi-Fi-3G-vs-Samsung-Galaxy-Note-10-1

Responsibility of Government Essay

Time has changed and where we live today is what may be called as a â€Å"global consumer society†. People are striving in the fast lane to make their hassle bustle life a bit relaxing, convenient and luxurious by purchasing and manufacturing equipments and then disposing them off. This is where businesses and industry play an important role in degrading our environment, utilizing our resources to produce those artificial things and utilities for one’s convenience, which leads to ominous results. Presently, the most highlighted issues about the macrocosm is the menace to our natural habitat by our commercial sector. The essay will analyze how they affect our environment, their responsibilities to protect it and also it is the duty of government to take measures for it. According to Fieser, J. (2010) the biggest threat to the environment is inflicted by Commercial enterprises and businesses rather than any other domestic activity. Factories produce toxic waste and dump it without remembering about the side effects, thus polluting the soil and water. Similarly deforestation has been done on a large scale with them during the development of new industries, not considering the fact that they disturb the natural habitat. The majority of these offenders are from the third world countries also known as the underdeveloped countries, as they ignore  being environmentally responsible while competing with industrialized states. Likewise, due to deficiency of alternatives available in such countries it makes it hard for them to maintain a balance between energy conservation and economic progress. All of this results in environmental degradation by business sector. Many examples of such cases could be brought up with this discussion. For instance, a Union Carbide incident in OHIO (1960’s) where two chemical and metal plants were manufactured in a valley trapping it with the ash clouds and air pollution, not only did they result in endangering the surroundings but caused different respiratory diseases among the locals. In spite of being responsible for all, the company refused all public discussions and ignored governmental requests for the plant’s inspection, another similar big incident related to nuclear power plants in Pennsylvania and Chernobyl in which radiations were released to the local community and a steam explosion in the plant also let out tons of radioactive material in the atmosphere killing several and injuring thousands, all of these incidents are a proof of irresponsibility shown by the respective industries. Although, agreeing that the main motive of businesses is to make profit for their investors and that the consumers only prefer buying stuff which is cheaper instead of being Eco friendly – as environmental standard production of products raises their cost. They should be familiar with the social responsibilities they have on themselves, which is best described by Haynes, T. (N.d.). â€Å"Social responsibility is a moral theory that says any organization is obligated to act for the benefit of its society†, It is a duty that everyone has to perform to maintain balance between ecosystem and economy. Yet, still some companies work with the ideology that- what is best for the environment is not always financially best for them -which is wrong. Some, also think that they are not legally bound to care for the government as there are no such laws which asks them to do so. Another argument form these business enterprises is † that caring for the environment rests with the consumers not us, if they are not interested in favoring businesses running an Eco- sustainable policies then there is no point reforming such policies on them†. Let’s not forget that environment is common to everyone, no-one possesses it and everyone is equally responsible for it, so far no one is bound to accept the responsibility for a common thing, the point being drawn is that no private  organization should be responsible for the commons. As alleged, by James W. (2007) â€Å"Responsibility for the commons rests primarily with political communities of citizens through their governments, and their duty is to do justice†. Hence, the government should secure the sustainability of the surroundings and to introduce law which promote ecologically friendly advancement which would eventually bind all businesses to be more socially responsible. Also, it will encourage other sectors to contribute their part in fighting against the threats to our environment. The office of government is also important when it adds up to some critical topics connected to the environment such as global heating and loss of biodiversity which is done by deforestation and utilizing of natural habitat for new growth projects. This could be forestalled simply by opting alternatives for the arrangements, i.e. using old sites to build new industries and encourage recycling – government is the only physical structure that could enforce them to behave thus. Though, businesses should be socially responsible, but the governments do play a broader and important role in protecting our environment because it is their duty to assure justice to everyone, be it an organization or our environment and they should not wait till severe problems are faced after all is done. It is conclusive that government practices hold a major part in protecting our environment, even if businesses do try to be socially responsible they cannot make out a great deal compared to what government bodies can act- and they should perform whatever is possible if they want a pleasant and sustainable environment to live in. REFERENCES Fieser, J. (2010), Business ethics: section three. Hayens, T. (N.d.). Social Responsibility and Organizational Ethics. Kalinda, B. (Ed.). Social Responsibility and Organizational Ethics. (2001). Encyclopedia of Business and Finance (2nd ed., Vol.1). New York: Macmillan References. James, W. (2007), Conserving the environment:Guideline #10 for government and Citizenship. Online available from URL http://www.cpjustice.org/PJR2007Q2/EnvironmentGuideline10 [Accessed 10 April 2014] Jason, D. (2006), The role of government in environmental protection. Online available from URL http://grist.org/article/the-role-of-government-in-environmental-protection/ [Accessed 11 April 2014] (Why protecting our environment is so important?, 2011) Niharika Bhati, Role of Government and problems faced in protecting our environment. Online available from URL http://www.preservearticles.com/201102244196/role-of-government-and-the-problems-faced-in-protecting-our-environment.html [Accessed 10 April 2014]

Malaria control and intervention by DDt Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Malaria control and intervention by DDt - Essay Example Mortality and morbidity rate in Nigeria are very high compared to any country in Africa. Unless the root causes are not determined and effective measures to eradicate the disease are not implemented, any hope for decline in the disease statistics by just preventive measures is useless. DDT can prove to be an effective means to destroy the breeding sites of mosquitoes carrying the parasite and so its risk benefit ratio against the control of Malaria, should be reviewed by the governing bodies for effective eradication of the disease condition from Nigeria. NIGERIA: DEMOGRAPHIC AND GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION The most populous country in Africa is Nigeria. It covers the area of about 923,768 square kilometers. It is located on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa. Benin, Chad, Niger and Cameroon are its neighboring countries. The southern coast is bordered with swamps and mangroves forests and the River Niger flows South through the Western regions of the country. Its capital is Abuja and the three most ethnic and influential groups of Nigeria are Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. An estimation of Nigerian population was made by the United Nations; it was 124,009,000, which made it the tenth most populated country of the world in the year 2000. The birth rate skyrocketed with 40.12% per 1000 and the death rate was 13.72 per 1000 for the same year. The annual growth rate of the population was 2.67% for the years 2000 till 2015. 44% of the population lives in the urban areas. The Southern regions are thickly populated than the North. The most populated city of Nigeria is Lagos. Nigeria is made up of 36 states and there are six geopolitical zones in it. (National Encyclopedia) MALARIA: Malaria is a tropical disease which is caused by Anopheles mosquito bite. A female mosquito, Anopheles, infected with plasmodia parasite. The infected person faces fever attacks with influenza symptoms, fatigue and diarrhea and many other indicating symptoms of the infection. Parasites grow in the inte stine of the mosquito and are present in the salivary glands for its easy transmission to host. With a single bite of the mosquito, parasite is injected into the blood stream of the person and invades in liver. Liver and blood acts as host for development and completing the life cycle of malarial sporozoites. Parasites multiply inside red blood cells and expose the symptoms of malaria within 10 days to 4 weeks of infection. It takes over 5 -16 days for sporozoites to grow and divide, and sometimes it takes more than that, so parasite remains dormant for an extended period of time. Malaria parasites are from the genus Plasmodium. Altogether four types of Plasmodium can cause Malaria, out of which Plasmodium Falciparum causes the most fatal Malaria. Plasmodium Ovale, P. vivax, P. Malariae causes milder Malaria.(Easmon C.,2009) MALARIA IN NIGERIA: Malaria is one of the leading cause of death in Sub Saharan and other third world countries. Developed countries have eradicated the disease by various useful means but still sometimes cases of malaria are reported because the strains of plasmodium carrying Anopheles bacteria are still present in these regions. In 2007, CDC received

The Impact of Coffee on the Global Marke Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

The Impact of Coffee on the Global Marke - Essay Example Consumer demand is on the rise for such coffee and as people continue to drink such coffees the quality of coffee is one issue that will not be overlooked (Myers, n.d). Coffee is also consumed for its value of inhibiting sleep. This usually enables individuals who were involved in an activity to continue even late in the night without the inhibition of sleep.  Additionally, Coffee is a source of employment for many people of the world. Coffee is said to be the second most traded product after Oil (Solange   et..Al, 2011).  Ã‚   This potentially means that it provides employment to many people at different levels. These include the famers who plant the crop, the people who transport the crop to the market, the people involved in the conversion of coffee from berries to the finished product, the individuals providing packaging for the coffee as well as the marketers, distributers, Warehouse operators and also the shipping companies and many more.  In addition, the impact of Cof fee has many positives about the provision of a beverage and employments at different levels. That said, it cannot be overlooked that there have been certain challenges with regard to employment and the remuneration of people involved globally in the production of Coffee which need to be addressed. These have led to maintaining of the poverty cycle, gender discrimination, as well as enrichment of a few intermediaries at the expense of the majority who are involved in the production cycle. If these issues are not addressed.

Maori Identity Expression and Development in Once Were Warriors Essay

Maori Identity Expression and Development in Once Were Warriors - Essay Example I used the concepts and arguments from the following major theorists: Murray and Conrich (2008), Barclay (1990), Pihama (1996), Alia and Bull (2005) and Mita (1996). Murray and Conrich (2008) explore the meaning of ‘indigenous self-expression,’ while Barclay (1990) describes the process and effects of ‘talking in’ for indigenous people. Pihama (1996) emphasises the importance of contextualising Maori violence in order to avoid ethnic stereotyping. Alia and Bull (2005, p.64) argue that as indigenous groups internalise outsider views and develop their own internal understanding of their societies, they are involved in the ‘invention of tradition.’ Mita (1996) asserts that films provide the opportunity of decolonising themes. For this essay, I ask: How does Once Were Warriors reflect the ideas of the ‘indigenous self-expression’ (Murray and Conrich 2008), ‘our own image’ and ‘talking in’ (Barclay 1990), and â €˜decolonising the screen’ (Mita 1996)? Once Were Warriors reflects ‘indigenous self-expression’ (Murray and Conrich 2008), ‘our own image’ and ‘talking in’ (Barclay 1990) through emphasising the remaking and reclaiming of the warrior Maori culture in different ways and ‘decolonising the screen’ (Mita 1996) through reducing Western influences and focusing on the legitimacy of the hybrid Maori-modern culture. The paper concludes that Once Were Warriors signifies the remaking of Maori identity through the process of reclaiming their warriorhood status that simultaneously decolonises Maori identity development. ii. Reflexive Introduction I chose this film because it represents the breakdown of the indigenous social fabric, after colonisation has eroded the cultural fabric of the colonised. As a person who has a strong sense of colonisation history and who values family and clan ties, I can relate to the impacts of colonisati on and urbanisation on the social ties and identity-making of the Maori. Colonisation and its subsequent urbanisation and commercialisation effects have eroded the Maoris’ sense of identity, affecting not only their ethnic group as a whole, but also their family roots and individual personalities. I am then interpreting the film, not only from the views and concepts of the aforementioned theorists, but also from my own family and social values and experiences, because I am someone who deeply respects and values collectivistic societies, of which I am also a proud part of. I continue to strongly ground my analysis on scholarly research, nonetheless, through using textual analysis and semiotics that can help me attain a balanced perspective. iii. Background Introduction Since the early 1970s, a significant cultural shift is changing Maori representation in films, a shift called the â€Å"Maori Renaissance† (Keown 2008, p.197). Lee Tamahori’s Once Were Warriors bel ongs to this shift, as it portrays the implications of one of the historical events in the Maoris’ lives, their migration from rural, coastal ancestral lands to Pakeha-dominated urban areas and the effects of this migration to their ethnic identity-making process and identities (Keown 2008, p.197). For this essay, I explore how the film reflects indigenous expression and decolonisation themes. My research question is: How does Once Were Warriors reflect the ideas of the ‘indigenous self-expression’ (Murray and Conrich 2008), ‘our own image’

Contrast Frank Lloyd Wright's Organic architecure and Le Corbusier's Essay

Contrast Frank Lloyd Wright's Organic architecure and Le Corbusier's International style of architecture in the 20th century - Essay Example Wright has taken the opportunity to guide and advise the architectural community on the importance of following the laws of nature on building procedures and main architectural styles. In his speech, he stated that organic architecture is the ideal form of designs that should be the trend in revolutionizing architecture and other building policies. He categorically explained that following the tradition and allowing it to spin into new building architectural designs. Modern architectures have taken on organic architecture concepts to develop new architectural designs. There structural designs are detailed and based on the environmental form and the surroundings of the buildings. Wright designed and implemented the building of the Winslow House in Illinois. Thereafter, he has had several other designs under his name. The Falling Water and Solomon Guggenheim Museums are some of his most celebrated designs the world over. Architectures can easily use new concrete formations to create ne w designs that are not linear or following a particular geometric dimension. The main design features allow for implementation of primitives such as wavy lines or contours which are not the traditional design primitives. The usual design primitives are normally geometrical and are widely used in architectural designs all over. Organic designs are flexible and easily adaptable to the environment. They are not easy to implement and many architectures have not adopted for its use. Wright’s design helped in the formulation of a new language that has been widely applied to architecture. He created a new design referred to as Prairie Style. This style was majorly affected by the way he utilized the spacing provided for the building. His main characteristic design was the freestanding house design that he covered by an overhanging roofing design. In the style he developed a plan to build a chimney in the middle of the house. Wright developed a plan to for a house that utilized a lot of open space that had been separated by from each other by simple architectural tools. The Prairie had a sloping roof that could be used to hold household items. The Style is mainly suitable for domestic home's architecture. The plan steered away from using walls and doors instead of the usual petitions (Frank Lloyd paragraph 3). The planning strategy was referred to as the open blueprint or plan. The selling point in this plan was the integration of nature with actual buildings. The concept of organic architecture is an essential conservatory strategy as it emphasizes on the preservation of the environment around buildings and main architectures. The use of organisms as part of a design was to inspire harmony of the two and relate them as a single unit. The design categories are made according to the defined functions of the organisms to be used. Wright's building designs emphasize the coexistence of the building designs and the organisms. Either of the two dictates the whole com plete design of a building. A design is complete with the implementation of both the designs, of the building and the organism in the surrounding. Le Corbusier International Architectural designs Le Corbusier was born and grew up in Switzerland before moving to France at the age of 29. He was passionate about architecture and had a notion that the designs that were present at that time were uninspiring.

Researched Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Researched - Research Paper Example This is made possible by taking maximum efforts to promote the factor of water reuse. NISP has dealt with water quality and supply issues by making great investments in water reuse which has begun to effectively manage future water needs without the need for excessive budget. NISP believes that there is a great need to use more aggressive water reuse strategies. It is believed by NISP that there are always better and more efficient ways to meet future water needs and deal with soil impurities. For example, another way by which NISP has achieved that end is by using means which are more budget and environment friendly. Though some NISP processes have been quite expensive so far (Poudre Waterkeeper), more and more straight forward and simple conservation strategies are in process now as a way to reduce costs. For example, increasing the level of public awareness is one such measure by which water conservation is being ensured. This is a simple technique which does not require greater costs and does not cause any harm also. Rewards are also given to customers who show interest in conservation in the form of lower costs. This can greatly help to accomplish two means, healthy rivers and improved water

Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Critique - Essay Example The paper under consideration was one of his initial developments about the subject, and was recognized, and published in the Journal of Genetic Psychology in the year 1996. Summary This paper leads to the awareness of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (later referred to as ADHD in this critique), primarily by means of discussing the various theories associated to ADHD and the possible adaptive function. The author agrees to the fact that no single theory succeeds at explaining the occurrence and presence of ADHD. Previously, however, it might have served as an adaptive function. The need for analyzing this issue comes from a clear pattern that shows distinctive behavioral changes amongst children, and some of them continue to show the same for longer periods of times. The research paper shows clear facts that approximately 5% of the school aged children are affected by ADHD and some half of these stabilize towards complete disorder in the later part of their ages. Identifying the need of this research by stating these facts and the need to understand this issue, the author then moves towards identifying the clinical features i.e. the symptoms of this issue leading towards the disorder. The author then refers to the biology of ADHD, where he describes the genetic reasoning of the issue.

Ford Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ford - Research Paper Example The company is deeply concerned about the community within its business operation. Ford motor company operates in many parts of the world. For example, in Australia the company developed a program that provides support to the community within their plants. Community support and corporate initiatives have been Ford Motor Company responsibility since its inception after 1903. The founder of the company, Hendry Ford supported employees working for his company by providing educational support; he did this by building schools. Additionally, the founder believed and supported environmental sustainability. The founder’s legacy has been taken over by the company (Corporate Social Responsibility, n.d.). General Motors is the main competitor of Ford Motor Company in the U.S. General Motors is the biggest manufacturer of trucks and cars. Well known brands for General Motors are Chevrolet, Cadillac, Buick, Opel, Daewoo and Holden. The company has both local and international operations. However, Ford Motor Company has recently gained more market shares in the U.S. The increase in market share was attributed to consumer preference of their fuel efficient engines. Some of the vehicles of Ford Motor Company in the U.S. that boosted its market share are Fusion, Escape and F-series. Additionally, Ford Motor Company performance currently is well, this evidenced from its rise in New York Stock Exchange by 3%. However, its major rival is down by 16%. The main problem of GM currently is the recalls the company made because of defective ignition switches (Blanc, 2014). Ford is faced with serious competition internationally from Toyota, Nissan, General Motors, Honda and Chrysler. The fact is that, most of the competitors’ brands are cheaper and fuel efficient than Ford Motor Company brands. However, recently, the company showed improvement internationally with an international operation contributing to 35% to stock prices (Trefis Team 2010). Ford Motor Company depends on

Lieducation in preliterate societies Essay Example for Free

Lieducation in preliterate societies Essay Education, History of, theories, methods, and administration of schools and other agencies of information from ancient times to the present. Education developed from the human struggle for survival and enlightenment. It may be formal or informal. Informal education refers to the general social process by which human beings acquire the knowledge and skills needed to function in their culture. Formal education refers to the process by which teachers instruct students in courses of study within institutions. Before the invention of reading and writing, people lived in an environment in which they struggled to survive against natural forces, animals, and other humans. To survive, preliterate people developed skills that grew into cultural and educational patterns. For a particular group’s culture to continue into the future, people had to transmit it, or pass it on, from adults to children. The earliest educational processes involved sharing information about gathering food and providing shelter; making weapons and other tools; learning language; and acquiring the values, behavior, and religious rites or practices of a given culture. Through direct, informal education, parents, elders, and priests taught children the skills and roles they would need as adults. These lessons eventually formed the moral codes that governed behavior. Since they lived before the invention of writing, preliterate people used an oral tradition, or story telling, to pass on their culture and history from one generation to the next. By using language, people learned to create and use symbols, words, or signs to express their ideas. When these symbols grew into pictographs and letters, human beings created a written language and made the great cultural leap to literacy. IIIEDUCATION IN ANCIENT AFRICA AND ASIA In ancient Egypt, which flourished from about 3000 BC to about 500 BC, priests in temple schools taught not only religion but also the principles of writing, the sciences, mathematics, and architecture. Similarly in India, priests conducted most of the formal education. Beginning in about 1200 BC Indian priests taught the principles of the Veda, the sacred texts of Hinduism, as well as science, grammar, and philosophy. Formal education in China dates to about 2000 BC, though it thrived particularly during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, from 770 to 256 BC (see China: The Eastern Zhou). The curriculum stressed philosophy, poetry, and religion, in accord with the teachings of Confucius, Laozi (Lao-tzu), and other philosophers. IVEDUCATION IN ANCIENT GREECE Historians have looked to ancient Greece as one of the origins of Western formal education. The Iliad and the Odyssey, epic poems attributed to Homer and written sometime in the 8th century BC, created a cultural tradition that gave the Greeks a sense of group identity. In their dramatic account of Greek struggles, Homer’s epics served important educational purposes. The legendary Greek warriors depicted in Homer’s work, such as Agamemnon, Odysseus, and Achilles, were heroes who served as models for the young Greeks. Ancient Greece was divided into small and often competing city-states, or poleis, such as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes. Athens emphasized a humane and democratic society and education, but only about one-third of the people in Athens were free citizens. Slaves and residents from other countries or city-states made up the rest of the population. Only the sons of free citizens attended school. The Athenians believed a free man should have a liberal education in order to perform his civic duties and for his own personal development. The education of women depended upon the customs of the particular Greek city-state. In Athens, where women had no legal or economic rights, most women did not attend school. Some girls, however, were educated at home by tutors. Slaves and other noncitizens had either no formal education or very little. Sparta, the chief political enemy of Athens, was a dictatorship that used education for military training and drill. In contrast to Athens, Spartan girls received more schooling but it was almost exclusively athletic training to prepare them to be healthy mothers of future Spartan soldiers. In the 400s BC, the Sophists, a group of wandering teachers, began to teach in Athens. The Sophists claimed that they could teach any subject or skill to anyone who wished to learn it. They specialized in teaching grammar, logic, and rhetoric, subjects that eventually formed the core of the liberal arts. The Sophists were more interested in preparing their students to argue persuasively and win  arguments than in teaching principles of truth and morality. Unlike the Sophists, the Greek philosopher Socrates sought to discover and teach universal principles of truth, beauty, and goodness. Socrates, who died in 399 BC, claimed that true knowledge existed within everyone and needed to be brought to consciousness. His educational method, called the Socratic method, consisted of asking probing questions that forced his students to think deeply about the meaning of life, truth, and justice. In 387 BC Plato, who had studied under Socrates, established a school in Athens called the Academy. Plato believed in an unchanging world of perfect ideas or universal concepts. He asserted that since true knowledge is the same in every place at every time, education, like truth, should be unchanging. Plato described his educational ideal in the Republic, one of the most notable works of Western philosophy. Plato’s Republic describes a model society, or republic, ruled by highly intelligent philosopher-kings. Warriors make up the republic’s second class of people. The lowest class, the workers, provide food and the other products for all the people of the republic. In Plato’s ideal educational system, each class would receive a different kind of instruction to prepare for their various roles in society. In 335 BC Plato’s student, Aristotle, founded his own school in Athens called the Lyceum. Believing that human beings are essentially rational, Aristotle thought people could discover natural laws that governed the universe and then follow these laws in their lives. He also concluded that educated people who used reason to make decisions would lead a life of moderation in which they avoided dangerous extremes. In the 4th century BC Greek orator Isocrates developed a method of education designed to prepare students to be competent orators who could serve as government officials. Isocrates’s students studied rhetoric, politics, ethics, and history. They examined model orations and practiced public speaking. Isocrates’s methods of education directly influenced such Roman educational theorists as Cicero and Quintilian. VEDUCATION IN ANCIENT ROME While the Greeks were developing their civilization in the areas surrounding the eastern Mediterranean Sea, the Romans were gaining control of the Italian peninsula and areas of the western Mediterranean. The Greeks’ education focused on the study of philosophy. The Romans, on the other hand, were preoccupied with war, conquest, politics, and civil administration. As in Greece, only a minority of Romans attended school. Schooling was for those who had the money to pay tuition and the time to attend classes. While girls from wealthy families occasionally learned to read and write at home, boys attended a primary school, called aludus. In secondary schools boys studied Latin and Greek grammar taught by Greek slaves, called pedagogues. After primary and secondary school, wealthy young men often attended schools of rhetoric or oratory that prepared them to be leaders in government and administration. Cicero, a 1st century BC Roman senator, combined Greek and Roman ideas on how to educate orators in his book De Oratore. Like Isocrates, Cicero believed orators should be educated in liberal arts subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, logic, mathematics, and astronomy. He also asserted that they should study ethics, military science, natural science, geography, history, and law. Quintilian, an influential Roman educator who lived in the 1st century AD, wrote that education should be based on the stages of individual development from childhood to adulthood. Quintilian devised specific lessons for each stage. He also advised teachers to make their lessons suited to the student’s readiness and ability to learn new material. He urged teachers to motivate students by making learning interesting and attractive. VIANCIENT JEWISH EDUCATION Education among the Jewish people also had a profound influence on Western learning. The ancient Jews had great respect for the printed word and believed that God revealed truth to them in the Bible. Most information on ancient Jewish goals and methods of education comes from the Bible and the Talmud, a book of religious and civil law. Jewish religious leaders, known as rabbis, advised parents to teach their children religious beliefs, law, ethical practices, and vocational skills. Both boys and girls were introduced to religion by studying the Torah, the most sacred document of Judaism. Rabbis taught in schools within synagogues, places of worship and religious study. VIIMEDIEVAL EDUCATION During the Middle Ages, or the medieval period, which lasted roughly from the 5th to the 15th century, Western society and education were heavily shaped by Christianity, particularly the Roman Catholic Church. The Church operated parish, chapel, and monastery schools at the elementary level. Schools in monasteries and cathedrals offered secondary education. Much of the teaching in these schools was directed at learning Latin, the old Roman language used by the church in its ceremonies and teachings. The church provided some limited opportunities for the education of women in religious communities or convents. Convents had libraries and schools to help prepare nuns to follow the religious rules of their communities. Merchant and craft guilds also maintained some schools that provided basic education and training in specific crafts. Knights received training in military tactics and the code of chivalry. As in the Greek and Roman eras, only a minority of people went to school during the medieval period. Schools were attended primarily by persons planning to enter religious life such as priests, monks, or nuns. The vast majority of people were serfs who served as agricultural workers on the estates of feudal lords. The serfs, who did not attend school, were generally illiterate (see Serfdom). In the 10th and early 11th centuries, Arabic learning had a pronounced influence on Western education. From contact with Arab scholars in North Africa and Spain, Western educators learned new ways of thinking about mathematics, natural science, medicine, and philosophy. The Arabic number system was especially important, and became the foundation of Western arithmetic. Arab scholars also preserved and translated into Arabic the works of such influential Greek scholars as Aristotle, Euclid, Galen, and Ptolemy. Because many of these works had disappeared from Europe by the Middle Ages, they might have been lost forever if Arab scholars such as Avicenna and Averroes had not preserved them. In the 11th century medieval scholars developed Scholasticism, a philosophical and educational movement that used both human reason and revelations from the Bible. Upon encountering the works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers from Arab scholars, the Scholastics attempted to reconcile Christian theology with Greek philosophy. Scholasticism reached its high point in the Summa Theologiae of Saint Thomas Aquinas, a 13th century Dominican theologian who taught at the University of Paris. Aquinas reconciled the authority of religious faith, represented by the Scriptures, with Greek reason, represented by Aristotle. Aquinas described the teacher’s vocation as one that combines faith, love, and learning. The work of Aquinas and other Scholastics took place in the medieval institutions of higher education, the universities. The famous European universities of Paris, Salerno, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Padua grew out of the Scholastics-led intellectual revival of the 12th and 13th centuries. The name university comes from the Latin word universitas, or associations, in reference to the associations that students and teachers organized to discuss academic issues. Medieval universities offered degrees in the liberal arts and in professional studies such as theology, law, and medicine. VIIIEDUCATION DURING THE RENAISSANCE The Renaissance, or rebirth of learning, began in Europe in the 14th century and reached its height in the 15th century. Scholars became more interested in the humanist features—that is, the secular or worldly rather than the religious aspects—of the Greek and Latin classics. Humanist educators found their models of literary style in the classics. The Renaissance was a particularly powerful force in Italy, most notably in art, literature, and architecture. In literature, the works of such Italian writers as Dante Aleghieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio became especially important. Humanist educators designed teaching methods to prepare well-rounded, liberally educated persons. Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus was particularly influential. Erasmus believed that understanding and conversing about the meaning of literature was more important than memorizing it, as had been required at many of the medieval religious schools. He advised teachers to study such fields as archaeology, astronomy, mythology, history, and Scripture. The invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century made books more widely available and increased literacy rates (see Printing). But school attendance did not increase greatly during the Renaissance. Elementary schools educated middle-class children while lower-class children received little, if any, formal schooling. Children of the nobility and upper classes attended humanist secondary schools. Educational opportunities for women improved slightly during the Renaissance, especially for the upper classes. Some girls from wealthy families attended schools of the royal court or received private lessons at home. The curriculum studied by young women was still based on the belief that only certain subjects, such as art, music, needlework, dancing, and poetry, were suited for females. For working-class girls, especially rural peasants, education was still limited to training in household duties such as cooking and sewing. IXEDUCATION DURING THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION The religious Reformation of the 16th century marked a decline in the authority of the Catholic Church and contributed to the emergence of the middle classes in Europe. Protestant religious reformers, such as John Calvin, Martin Luther, and Huldreich Zwingli, rejected the authority of the Catholic pope and created reformed Christian, or Protestant, churches. In their ardent determination to instruct followers to read the Bible in their native language, reformers extended literacy to the masses. They established vernacular primary schools that offered a basic curriculum of reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion for children in their own language. Vernacular schools in England, for example, used English to teach their pupils. As they argued with each other and with the Roman Catholics on religious matters, Protestant educators wrote catechisms—primary books that summarized their religious doctrine—in a question and answer format. While the vernacular schools educated both boys and girls at the primary level, upper-class boys attended preparatory and secondary schools that continued to emphasize Latin and Greek. The gymnasium in Germany, the Latin grammar school in England, and the lycee in France were preparatory schools that taught young men the classical languages of Latin and Greek required to enter universities. Martin Luther believed the state, family, and school, along with the church, were leaders of the Reformation. Since the family shaped children’s character, Luther encouraged parents to teach their children reading and religion. Each family should pray together, read the Bible, study the catechism, and practice a useful trade. Luther believed that government should assist schools in educating literate, productive, and religious citizens. One of Luther’s colleagues, German religious reformer Melanchthon, wrote the school code for the German region of Wurttemberg, which became a model for other regions of Germany and influenced education throughout Europe. According to this code, the government was responsible for supervising schools and licensing teachers. The Protestant reformers retained the dual-class school system that had developed in the Renaissance. Vernacular schools provided primary instruction for the lower classes, and the various classical humanist and Latin grammar schools prepared upper-class males for higher education. XEDUCATIONAL THEORY IN THE 17TH CENTURY Educators of the 17th century developed new ways of thinking about education. Czech education reformer Jan Komensky, known as Comenius, was particularly influential. A bishop of the Moravian Church, Comenius escaped religious persecution by taking refuge in Poland, Hungary, Sweden, and The Netherlands. He created a new educational philosophy called Pansophism, or universal knowledge, designed to bring about worldwide understanding and peace. Comenius advised teachers to use children’s senses rather than memorization in instruction. To make learning interesting for children, he wrote The Gate of Tongues Unlocked (1631), a book for teaching Latin in the student’s own language. He also wrote Orbis Sensualium Pictus (1658; The Visible World in Pictures, 1659) consisting of illustrations that labeled objects in both their Latin and vernacular names. It was one of the first illustrated books written especially for children. The work of English philosopher John Locke influenced education in Britain and North America. Locke examined how people acquire ideas in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). He asserted that at birth the human mind is a blank slate, or tabula rasa, and empty of ideas. We acquire knowledge, he argued, from the information about the objects in the world that our senses bring to us. We begin with simple ideas and then combine them into more complex ones. Locke believed that individuals acquire knowledge most easily when they first consider simple ideas and then gradually combine them into more complex ones. In Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1697), Locke recommended practical learning to prepare people to manage their social, economic, and political affairs efficiently. He believed that a sound education began in early childhood and insisted that the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic be gradual and cumulative. Locke’s curriculum included conversational learning of foreign languages, especially French, mathematics, history, physical education, and games. XIEDUCATION DURING THE ENLIGHTENMENT The Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century produced important changes in education and educational theory. During the Enlightenment, also called the Age of Reason, educators believed people could improve their lives and society by using their reason, their powers of critical thinking. The Enlightenment’s ideas had a significant impact on the American Revolution (1775-1783) and early educational policy in the United States. In particular, American philosopher and scientist Benjamin Franklin emphasized the value of utilitarian and scientific education in American schools. Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, stressed the importance of civic education to the citizens of a democratic nation. The Enlightenment principles that considered education as an instrument of social reform and improvement remain fundamental characteristics of American education policy. XIIEDUCATION IN THE 19TH CENTURY The foundations of modern education were established in the 19th century. Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, inspired by the work of French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, developed an educational method based on the natural world and the senses. Pestalozzi established schools in Switzerland and Germany to educate children and train teachers. He affirmed that schools should resemble secure and loving homes. Like Locke and Rousseau, Pestalozzi believed that thought began with sensation and that teaching should use the senses. Holding that children should study the objects in their natural environment, Pestalozzi developed a so-called â€Å"object lesson† that involved exercises in learning form, number, and language. Pupils determined and traced an object’s form, counted objects, and named them. Students progressed from these lessons to exercises in drawing, writing, adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and reading. Pestalozzi employed the following principles in teaching: (1) begin with the concrete object before introducing abstract concepts; (2) begin with the immediate environment before dealing with what is distant and remote; (3) begin with easy exercises before introducing complex ones; and (4) always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and slowly. American educator Henry Barnard, the first U. S. Commissioner of Education, introduced Pestalozzi’s ideas to the United States in the late 19th century. Barnard also worked for the establishment of free public high schools for students of all classes of American society. German philosopher Johann Herbart emphasized moral education and designed a highly structured teaching technique. Maintaining that education’s primary goal is moral development, Herbart claimed good character rested on knowledge while misconduct resulted from an inadequate education. Knowledge, he said, should create an â€Å"apperceptive mass†Ã¢â‚¬â€a network of ideas—in a person’s mind to which new ideas can be added. He wanted to include history, geography, and literature in the school curriculum as well as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Based on his work, Herbart’s followers designed a five-step teaching method: (1) prepare the pupils to be ready for the new lesson, (2) present the new lesson, (3) associate the new lesson with ideas studied earlier, (4) use examples to illustrate the lesson’s major points, and (5) test pupils to ensure they had learned the new lesson. AKindergarten German educator Friedrich Froebel created the earliest kindergarten, a form of preschool education that literally means â€Å"child’s garden† in German. Froebel, who had an unhappy childhood, urged teachers to think back to their own childhoods to find insights they could use in their teaching. Froebel studied at Pestalozzi’s institute in Yverdon, Switzerland, from 1808 to 1810. While agreeing with Pestalozzi’s emphasis on the natural world, a kindly school atmosphere, and the object lesson, Froebel felt that Pestalozzi’s method was not philosophical enough. Froebel believed that every child’s inner self contained a spiritual essence—a spark of divine energy—that enabled a child to learn independently. In 1837 Froebel opened a kindergarten in Blankenburg with a curriculum that featured songs, stories, games, gifts, and occupations. The songs and stories stimulated the imaginations of children and introduced them to folk heroes and cultural values. Games developed children’s social and physical skills. By playing with each other, children learned to participate in a group. Froebel’s gifts, including such objects as spheres, cubes, and cylinders, were designed to enable the child to understand the concept that the object represented. Occupations consisted of materials children could use in building activities. For example, clay, sand, cardboard, and sticks could be used to build castles, cities, and mountains. Immigrants from Germany brought the kindergarten concept to the United States, where it became part of the American school system. Margarethe Meyer Schurz opened a German-language kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1855. Elizabeth Peabody established an English-language kindergarten and a training school for kindergarten teachers in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1860. William Torrey Harris, superintendent of schools in St. Louis, Missouri, and later a U. S. commissioner of education, made the kindergarten part of the American public school system. BSocial Darwinism British sociologist Herbert Spencer strongly influenced education in the mid-19th century with social theories based on the theory of evolution developed by British naturalist Charles Darwin. Spencer revised Darwin’s biological theory into social Darwinism, a body of ideas that applied the theory of evolution to society, politics, the economy, and education. Spencer maintained that in modern industrialized societies, as in earlier simpler societies, the â€Å"fittest† individuals of each generation survived because they were intelligent and adaptable. Competition caused the brightest and strongest individuals to climb to the top of the society. Urging unlimited competition, Spencer wanted government to restrict its activities to the bare minimum. He opposed public schools, claiming that they would create a monopoly for mediocrity by catering to students of low ability. He wanted private schools to compete against each other in trying to attract the brightest students and most capable teachers. Spencer’s social Darwinism became very popular in the last half of the 19th century when industrialization was changing American and Western European societies. Spencer believed that people in industrialized society needed scientific rather than classical education. Emphasizing education in practical skills, he advocated a curriculum featuring lessons in five basic human activities: (1) those needed for self-preservation such as health, diet, and exercise; (2) those needed to perform one’s occupation so that a person can earn a living, including the basic skills of reading, writing, computation, and knowledge of the sciences; (3) those needed for parenting, to raise children properly; (4) those needed to participate in society and politics; and (5) those needed for leisure and recreation. Spencer’s ideas on education were eagerly accepted in the United States. In 1918 the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, a report issued by the National Education Association, used Spencer’s list of activities in its recommendations for American education. XIIINATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION In the 19th century, governments in the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, and other European countries organized national systems of public education. The United States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, and other countries in North and South America also established national education systems based largely on European models. AIn the United Kingdom. The Church of England and other churches often operated primary schools in the United Kingdom, where students paid a small fee to study the Bible, catechism, reading, writing, and arithmetic. In 1833 the British Parliament passed a law that gave some government funds to these schools. In 1862 the United Kingdom established a school grant system, called payment by results, in which schools received funds based on their students’ performance on reading, writing, and arithmetic tests. The Education Act of 1870, called the Forster Act, authorized local government boards to establish public board schools. The United Kingdom then had two schools systems: board schools operated by the government and voluntary schools conducted by the churches and other private organizations. In 1878 the United Kingdom passed laws that limited child labor in factories and made it possible for more children to attend school. To make schooling available to working-class children, many schools with limited public and private funds used monitorial methods of instruction. Monitorial education, developed by British educators Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell, used student monitors to conduct lessons. It offered the fledgling public education system the advantage of allowing schools to hire fewer teachers to instruct the large number of new students. Schools featuring monitorial education used older boys, called monitors, who were more advanced in their studies, to teach younger children. Monitorial education concentrated on basic skills—reading, writing, and arithmetic—that were broken down into small parts or units. After a monitor had learned a unit—such as spelling words of two or three letters that began with the letter A—he would, under the master teacher’s supervision, teach this unit to a group of students. By the end of the 19th century, the monitorial system was abandoned in British schools because it provided a very limited education. BIn Russia Russian tsar Alexander II initiated education reforms leading to the Education Statute of 1864. This law created zemstvos, local government units, which operated primary schools. In addition to zemstvo schools, the Russian Orthodox Church conducted parish schools. While the number of children attending school slowly increased, most of Russia’s population remained illiterate. Peasants often refused to send their children to school so that they could work on the farms. More boys attended school than girls since many peasant parents considered female education unnecessary. Fearing that too much education would make people discontented with their lives, the tsar’s government provided only limited schooling to instill political loyalty and religious piety. CIn the United States Before the 19th century elementary and secondary education in the United States was organized on a local or regional level. Nearly all schools operated on private funds exclusively. However, beginning in the 1830s and 1840s, American educators such as Henry Barnard and Horace Mann argued for the creation of a school system operated by individual states that would provide an equal education for all American children. In 1852 Massachusetts passed the first laws calling for free public education, and by 1918 all U. S. states had passed compulsory school attendance laws. See Public Education in the United States. XIVEDUCATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY At the beginning of the 20th century, the writings of Swedish feminist and educator Ellen Key influenced education around the world. Key’s book Barnets arhundrade (1900; The Century of the Child,1909) was translated into many languages and inspired so-called progressive educators in various countries. Progressive education was a system of teaching that emphasized the needs and potentials of the child, rather than the needs of society or the principles of religion. Among the influential progressive educators were Hermann Lietz and Georg Michael Kerschensteiner of Germany, Bertrand Russell of England, and Maria Montessori of Italy. AMontessori Montessori’s methods of early childhood education have become internationally popular. Trained in medicine, Montessori worked with developmentally disabled children early in her career. The results of her work were so effective that she believed her teaching methods could be used to educate all children. In 1907 Montessori established a children’s school, the Casa dei Bambini (Children’s House), for poor children from the San Lorenzo district of Rome. Here she developed a specially prepared environment that featured materials and activities based on her observations of children. She found that children enjoy mastering specific skills, prefer work to play, and can sustain concentration. She also believed that children have a power to learn independently if provided a properly stimulating environment. Montessori’s curriculum emphasized three major classes of activity: (1) practical, (2) sensory, and (3) formal skills and studies. It introduced children to such practical activities as setting the table, serving a meal, washing dishes, tying and buttoning clothing, and practicing basic social manners. Repetitive exercises developed sensory and muscular coordination. Formal skills and subjects included reading, writing, and arithmetic. Montessori designed special teaching materials to develop these skills, including laces, buttons, weights, and materials identifiable by their sound or smell. Instructors provided the materials for the children and demonstrated the lessons but allowed each child to independently learn the particular skill or behavior. In 1913 Montessori lectured in the United States on her educational method.